SEVEN -HOUR  SYSTEM 


OF 


R  A  M  M  A  R 


i 


fi? 
pS 


NOUN 


BY  PROF.  D.  P.  HOWE,  BOSTON,  MASS. 


PRICE  OJ^'E  DOLLAR. 


UGSB   LIBRARY 


SCIENCE  OF  LANGUAGE, 


OR 


SEVEN  -  floup^  SYSTEM 


OF 


GRAM  MAR 


BY    PROF.    D.    P.   HOWE, 

OF     THE     UNION     COLLEGE,      BOSTON,      MASS. 


MANCHESTER,    N.  H.. 


SPBING    3TBEKI. 
1870. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 

D.    P.    HOWE, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


INTRODUCTION. 


This  little  work  has  been  published  at  the  urgent  and  repeated  request 
of  persons  of  all  shades  of  education  in  every  State  of  the  Union,  from 
Maine  to  Florida.  It  is  designed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  class 
of  persons,  immersed  in  business  pursuits,  entirely  cut  off  from  the  advan- 
tages and  influence  of  the  School  Room,  and  whose  opportunities  of  an 
educational  developement  in  this  particular  are  at  an  end.  With  an 
experience  of  more  than  thirty  years  in  the  art  of  teaching,  and  a  fa- 
miliar acquaintance  with  the  views  of  nearly  a  thousand  authors,  the 
writer  is  enabled  to  form  an  opinion  of  his  own.  He  is  satisfied  that  one 
of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  understanding  of  Grammar,  is  the  scat- 
tered arrangement  of  thought,  as  exhibited  in  the  Text  Books  of  the 
present  day.  The  writer  has  endeavored  to  remove  this  difficulty,  by 
conceutrating  the  scattered  fragments  of  the  Science,  and  bringing  into 
measurable  compass  all  that  is  practically  useful  for  every -day  life. 
His  arrangement  in  this  particular  is  entirely  original.  Every  gem  of 
thought,  every  idea  of  value,  and  every  excellence  in  the  Science  worthy 
of  attention,  he  has  retained,  while  the  profuse  surplus  nonsense,  the 
literary  brushwood,  and  the  metaphysical,  perplexing  subtleties  of  the 
Text  Books,  which  have  ever  obscured  the  Science,  he  has  given  to  the 
winds.  These  may  be  interesting  to  the  Professor  of  Logic,  but  to  the 
great  mass,  who  desire  simple  knowledge,  they  are  absolutely  valueless. 
What  he  has  retained  must  be  carefully  read  and  digested,  and  if  put  into 
practice  will  constitute  the  scholar ;  what  he  has  omitted  is  not  worth  the 
looking  after.  To  the  uneducated,  yet  ambitiqus  person,  this  little  work  will 
prove  a  particular  friend ;  for  by  it,  independent  of  all  previous  know- 
ledge or  preparatory  fitness,  he  can  climb  from  the  A.  B.  C.  of  the 
Science  to  its  most  practical  bight* ;  while  the  profound  student  already 


4  INTRODUCTORY. 

famous  for  bis  attainments  in  search  after  knowledge,  will  find  many 
bewildering  and  perplexing  difficulties  explained  and  simplified. 

The  author's  discovery  of  the  limited  governing  power  of  the  Transitive 
Verbs  and  Prepositions,  startling  as  it  may  be,  has  met  with  universal 
approval  and  recognition,  from  every  intelligent,  unprejudiced  scholar 
who  has  heard  it.  With  this  fact  before  the  mind,  the  education  of  year* 
is  diminished  into  as  many  minutes,  and  that  which  before  was  wild> 
immeasurable,  and  incomprehensible  confusion,  is  now  a  perfect  sim- 
plicity. Those  SEVEN  WORDS,  as  contrasted  with  the  30,000  Nouns  and  the 
60  Pronouns  of  the  text  books,  are  worthy  of  being  written  in  letters  of 
lightning  across  the  heavens  for  all  Christendom  to  witness,  as  being  the 
only  words  in  the  English  language,  under  the  control  of  the  governing 
powers  named,  in  which  a  grammatical  error  can  be  made.  He  might 
point  with  pleasure  also  to  the  simplicity  of  the  suspended  vibrating  *, 
securing  agreement  between  the  Verb  and  the  Noun,  which  has  proved 
the  delight  of  thousands  ;  and  to  his  exposition  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood 
and  Prepositions,  all  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  Platform  Speaker,  the 
Clergyman,  or  the  Senator.  Fifteen  minutes'  attention  to  any  one  of  these 
will  protect  any  intelligent  person  from  erring  once  in  a  life  time. 

In  conclusion,  any  one  desiring  to  speak  or  write  correctly,  can  accom- 
plish what  he  wishes,  by  giving  this  little  work  one  week's  study ;  and  he 
will,  in  this  short  time,  attain  to  a  greater  perfection,  a  more  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  English  language,  than  he  could  secure  by  many 
tedious  years  of  study,  from  the  common  text  books  of  the  country. 
Should  his  efforts  to  simplify  this  most  important  of  all  branches  of 
Science,  meet  to  some  extent  the  literary  necessities  of  the  adult  popula- 
tion of  America,  and  prove,  as  intended,  the  right-hand  friend  of  the 
Self-Student,  the  writer's  most  ardent  wishes  will  have  been  accomplished. 

BOSTON,  MASS.,  March,  1870. 


GRAMMAR. 


GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  expressing  our  thoughts 
correctly,  in  speaking  or  writing. 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


The  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  is  divided  into  nine 
Parts  of  Speech :  Article,  Noun,  Adjective,  Pro- 
noun, Verb,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction  and 
Interjection. 


_  By  these  nine  divisions,  science  has  spanned  our 
language,  as  a  magnificent  river  is  spanned  by  a  bridge, 
and  its  rippling  waters  flow  through  the  several  arches. 


PROF.    HOWE  S   GBAMHAB. 

THE   NOUN 

IS   THE   PRINCIPAL   PART   OF   SPEECH. 


Of  the  nine  parts  of  speech,  the  Noun  is  the 
principal  one.  Like  the  sun  in  the  Solar  System, 
it  takes  the  position  of  centre,  round  which  the 
remaining  eight  parts  of  speech  revolve  as  mere 
satellites,  taking  the  secondary  office  of  modifiers  : 


NOUN. 


te  £ 

<2»  4 

^  r^ 

XX.  4? 

'^,  '* 

%.  ^ 

<V^ 


Thus,  the  Articles  point  to  the  Nouns,  or  to  the 
objects  which  they  represent :  the  Adjectives  give  them 
character  ;  the  Pronouns  are  their  substitutes  ;  the  Verbs 
state  something  about  them;  the  Adverbs  tell  how  their 
actions  are  done ;  the  Prepositions  show  their  relative 
position ;  the  Conjunctions  couple  them  together,  and 
the  Interjections  express  their  emotion. 


AKTICLES. 


ARTICLES. 


ARTICLES  limit  nouns  ;  or,  an  Article  is  a  word 
that  points  out  nouns  and  limits  them  ;  as,  A  star  ; 
an  oran  ;  the  sun. 


There  are  two  Articles,  A  and  The,  and  these 
may  be  considered  in  their  use,  as  the  two  Index  Fingers 
of  the  English  language.  A,  derived  from  ane  (one)  of 
the  Anglo  Saxon,  means  one,  and  is  therefore  necessa- 
rily used  in  the  singular  number;  as,  A  mountain;  a 
flower  ;  a  city. 

J3P3  Anterior  to  the  Conquest,  ane  was  in  universal 
use  ;  as,  ane  man  ;  ane  town  ;  ane  apple  ;  ane  orchard. 
At  a  later  day  ane  lost  the  final  e,  and  An  (an-e)  like 
to  its  predecessor,  took  the  full  circle  of  the  Nouns  of  the 
language,  irrespective  of  Vowel  or  Consonant  sounds  ; 
as,  An  boy  ;  an  man  ;  an  apple  ;  an  ornament.  Finally, 
as  time  rolled  on,  the  n  was  removed,  and  A  stands 
to-day,  the  modern  Indefinite  Article  of  the  language. 

I3P3  For  the  sake  of  euphony  the  removed  n  is  some- 
times recalled  to  coalesce  with  A  ,  as,  An  apple  ;  an 
instrument. 

This  necessity  produced  the  following  simple  rule, 
assented  to  by  all  grammarians  :  Vowel  sounds  require 
An  before  them  ;  Consonant  sounds,  A. 


VOWEL     SOUNDS. 

An  army. 
An  enemy. 
An  tnitrument. 
'   An  officer. 
An  umbrella. 

Words*  commencing  with 
a  silent  h  give  a  vowel  sound  ; 
as,  honest,  honorable;  Those 


CONSONANT      SOUNDS. 


A  butterfly. 
A  casket. 
A  cZelicacy. 
A/oreigner, 
A  ^iant,  &c. 

The  sharp  sound  of  u  as 
it  is  found  in  unity  is  made 
by  y  or  yu ;  hence  as  y  is 


PROF.    HOWES    GRAMMAR. 


having  the  h  sounded,  when  I  a    consonant    whenever    it 


the  accent  is  on  the  second 
syllable,  give  only  an  imper- 
fect consonant  sound,  and 
hence,  by  general  consent, 
both  are  placed  among  the 
words  having  vowel  sounds  ; 


An  honest  man. 
An  hotel  incident. 
An  Havana  letter. 
An  heroic  action. 
An  hereditary  disease. 


begins  a  word  or  syllable, 
words  having  this  sound 
are  placed  by  universal 
consent  and  the  best  au- 
thority, among  those  words 
requiring  the  Article  A ; 
as, — 


A  unit. 

A  euphony. 

A  ewer. 

A  useful  boy. 

A  university. 

THE  is  called  the  Definite  Article  because  it 
defines  and  points  out  definitely ;  as,  The  Creation,  the 
Flood  and  the  Crucifixion,  are  the  three  great  facts  of 
biblical  history. 

The  great,  the  gay,  shall  they  partake, 
The  heaven  that  thou  alone  can'st  make? 

^p3  Unlike  the  Indefinite  Article  A,  the  Definite  Arti- 
cle The,  undergoes  no  grammatical  change,  but  may  be 
used  indiscriminately  before  Nouns  in  the  singular  num- 
ber, and  those  in  the  plural  number,  and  before  voicel 
sounds,  as  well  as  consonant  sounds ;  as,  The  mountain, 
or,  the  mountains ;  the  army,  or,  the  wavy. 

S^"  Attention  to  the  preceding  arrangements,  and  the 
practice  of  them  in  speaking  or  writing,  will,  so  far  as 
the  Articles  go,  constitute  the  grammarian  ;  but  to  follow 
this  or  any  other  part  of  speech  into  every  sentence,  and 
show  its  use  and  application  to  it,  would  not  be  any  more 
a  sensible  act,  than  attempting  to  fix  beforehand  the 
undulations  of  the  eagle's  wing  in  its  flight  through  the 
heavens,  or  to  trace  the  movements  of  a  ship,  in  all  its 
angular  and  meandering  courses  through  the  trackless 
ocean.  All  who  try  it  fail ;  and  yet  it  is  this  unnecessary 
chasing  of  words  through  the  language,  that  fills  to  satiety 
the  textbooks  of  the  present  day,  and  makes  the  science, 
which  might  otherwise  appear  interesting  and  attractive, 
a  complete  metaphysical  guzzle,  and  a  hateful  absurdity 
to  the  student. 


NOUNS. 


NOUNS. 


NOUNS  are  names ;  or,  a  Noun  is  the  name  of 
any  person,  place,  object,  or  idea ;  as,  William, 
London,  garden,  happiness.  This,  or  any  other 
definition,  gives  but  a  feeble  idea  of  this  part  of 
speech ;  and  as  the  Noun  forms  the  base  upon 
which  the  whole  superstructure  of  the  English 
language  is  beautifully  and  permanently  erected, 
we  are  compelled  to  view  it  in  all  its  interesting 
features,  and  follow  it  to  its  utmost  limits. 


As  it  is  entirely  impossible  to  make  use  of  objects 
themselves  in  speaking  and  writing,  we  use  the  names. 
The  necessity  of  this  is  obvious ;  for  no  person  can  place 
a  continent  or  village  upon  his  tongue,  neither  can  he 
with  a  pen  dip  up  the  ocean  or  even  a  city  reservoir  for 
the  accommodation  of  his  correspondents.  He  can,  how- 
ever, speak  the  name,  continent  or  village,  and  with  simi- 
lar ease  write  the  name,  ocean  or  reservoir,  with  his  pen. 
Hence  the  name  is  all  the  speaker  or  writer  has  to  do 
with,  which  accounts  for  the  universal  application  of  the 
Noun. 
B 


10  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

£5^  To  grasp  the  Noun  in  its  immense  variety,  we 
must  give  our  imagination  the  greatest  freeness  of  action, 
and  trace,  so  far  as  we  are  able,  the  works  of  creation 
through  limitless  space.  Remembering,  that  there  is 
nothing  in  nature  so  large  or  so  diminutive,  so  distant  or 
so  near,  so  holy  or  so  impure,  that  will  not  come  under 
the  immediate  control  of  the  tongue  or  pen,  and  form  a 
subject  of  conversation  or  correspondence. 

J3r"  If  we  glance  at  the  heavens,  we  find  the  whole 
firmament  full  of  sparkling  orbs,  scattered  like  glittering 
gold-dust  from  horizon  to  horizon.  We  find  the  sun,  the 
moon,  the  planets,  and  the  stars  attracting  our  attention, 
and  instinctively  calling  our  aspirations  to  the  great 
Author  of  creation.  In  this  spirit  Addison  penned  the 
following  inimitable  lines,  which  may  be  grammatically, 
as  well  as  morally,  considered: 

The  spacious  firmament  on  high, 
-^  With  all  the  blue  ethereal  sky  ; 

Aud  spangled  heavens,  a  shining  frame, 
Their  great  ORIGINAL  proclaim. 
The  unwearied  sun  from  day  to  day, 
Doth  his  CREATOR'S  power  display ; 
And  publishes  to  every  land, 
The  work  of  an  Almighty  Itantl. 

Soon  as  the  evening  shades  prevail, 
The  moon  takes  up  the  wondrous  tale; 
And  nightly  to  the  listening  earth, 
Repeats  the  story  of  her  birth  • 
While  all  the  stars  that  round  her  burn, 
And  all  the  planets  in  their  turn, 
Confirm  the  tidings  as  they  roll, 
And  spread  the  truth  from  pole  to  pole. 

What  though  in  solemn  silence  all, 
Move  round  this  dark  terrestrial  ball; 
What  though  no  real  voice  nor  sound, 
Amid  those  radiant  orbs  be  found ; 
In  Reason's  car  they  all  rejoice, 
And  utter  forth  a  glorious  voice, 
Forever  singing  as  they  shine, 
"  The  HAND  that  made  us  is  divine." 


NOUNS.  11 

If  we  come  closer  to  this  world,  and  deal  with  matters 
of  more  local  interest,  we  can  find  innumerable  subjects  of 
conversation  and  correspondence:  The  lightning fla&h,  the 
thunder  peal,  the  storm  of  snoiv,  the  shoiver  of  ?-am,  the 
gentle  breeze,  the  ^a?c  of  wind,  the  hail-rf/'o/j  or  the  snow- 
flake.  Besides  these,  we  can  speak  of  continents  and 
islands,  oceans  and  seas,  mountains  and  valleys,  rivers  and 
streams,  forests  and  groves,  fields  and  gardens,  flowers  and 
vegetables,  cities  and  villages,  empires  and  kingdoms,  men 
and  women,  animals  and  birds,  fishes  and  reptiles,  Y//.S/T/.S 
and  worms.  In  fact,  we  can  speak  and  write  of  every 
thought  and  artf  of  every  member  of  the  human  ?-ace,  and 
of  all  higher  intelligences.  We  can  speak  and  write  of 
every  £/m?f/  inhabiting  the  ZancZ,  or  living  in  the  waters; 
of  every  i/tingr  found  floating  on  the  ocean,  or  buried  in 
its  depths  ;  of  every  tftin^  growing  from  the  soil,  or  resting 
on  its  bosom ;  of  every  thing  ornamenting  our  persons,  or 
decorating  our  houses ;  of  every  thing  poised  in  the  air, 
or  flashing  through  the  heavens,  created  by  DEITY,  or  in- 
vented by  man  ;  existing  anywhere  from  the  centre  of  the 
universe  to  its  remotest  verge.  The  name  of  any  thing 
and  every  thing  is  a  NOUN. 


COMMON  AND  PROPER  NOUNS. 

NOUNS  are  necessarily  divided  into  Common  and 
Proper. 

A  COMMON  NOUN  is  a  word  that  is  common  to  all  its 
race  or  class,  and  may  be  used  to  any  one,  without  re- 
striction or  change  ;  as,  man,  city,  ocean,  sea,  river,  moun- 
tain, ship.  Such  words  have  no  claim  to  capital  letters, 
and  they  never  should  have  them  within  the  body  of  a 
sentence,  no  matter  how  great  the  temptation  may  be  to 
act  otherwise. 


A  good  illustration  of  the  grammatical  term 
"  Common,"  as  used  in  such  phrases  as  Common  Nouns, 
Common  Gender,  may  be  secured. by  calling  to  mind  the 


12  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

Central  Park  of  New  York,  or  the  Boston  Common. 
Within  these  beautiful  inclosures  the  rich  and  poor  can 
meet  together,  the  millionaire  and  the  beggar,  the  happy 
and  the  sad,  the  healthy  and  the  invalid,  the  preacher 
and  the  politician,  the  stranger  and  the  citizen.  Ingress 
and  egress  without  the  slightest  restriction  are  allowed  ; 
the  inclosures  are  common  to  all.  Hence  the  name  given 
to  the  latter,  the  Boston  "  COMMON."  This  idea  does 
not  apply  to  individual  properties  ;  for  it  is  well  known 
that  walls,  palings,  gates  and  locks,  prevent  their  com- 
mon use. 

A  PROPEK  NOUN  is  the  individual  name  of  one  of  any 
race  or  class ;  as,  John,  Boston,  Atlantic,  Mediterranean, 
Hudson,  Andes,  Great  Western.  These,  and  all  other 
names  individualizing  any  one  from  its  fellows,  are  enti- 
tled to  the  capital  letters,  and  must  have  them  under 
every  circumstance. 


PERSON,    GENDER,    NUMBER,    CASE. 

NOUNS  are  said  to  be  varied  by  Person,  Gender, 
Number,  and  Case. 


PERSON. 

PERSON  is  that  relation  existing  between  the 
speaker,  the  audience,  and  the  subject  of  discourse, 
or  correspondence. 

Thus,  the  speaker  or  writer,  while  speaking  or  wri- 
ting, is  first  Person,  and  then  and  then  only  can  make 
use  of  such  words  as  /,  me,  we,  iis.  The  individual  or 
audience,  at  the  time  of  being  addressed,  is  Second  Person, 
and  in  such  circumstances  and  in  those  only,  the  word 


NOUNS.  13 

Thou,  thee,  ye  or  you  is  used.  The  person  or  persons, 
subject  or  subjects,  spoken  of,  are  in  the  Third  Person, 
and  in  such  cases  the  words,  he,  him,  she,  her,  they,  them, 
and  it,  are  appropriate.  Thus  it  may  be  perceived  at 
once,  that  the  only  words  which  distinguish  the  different 
Persons,  are  Pronouns.  But  as  Nouns  are  merely  names, 
which  can  neither  speak  nor  be  spoken  to,  but  only  used 
in  speaking  of,  it  follows  that  THEY  ARE  ALWAYS  IN  THE 
THIRD  PERSON,  and  can  never,  under  any  circumstance,  be 
in  the  First  or  Second  Person. 


This  to  some  will  be  new  doctrine,  but  it  cannot 
be  disproved.  The  "apposition"  of  the  Noun  with  the 
Pronoun  was  nothing  more  than  a  convenient  and  decep- 
tive invention,  accepted  by  students  in  their  ignorance, 
causing  them  much  confusion  and  anxiety,  without  result- 
ing in  any  benefit.  I  may  confidently  appeal  to  the 
best  grammatical  scholar  in  Christendom  to  point  out  to 
me  one  solitary  instance  in  the  English  language,  where 
an  error  can  be  created  in  speaking  or  writing,  by  recog- 
nizing and  calling  any  Noun,  a  Noun  in  the  Third  Person, 
and  he  cannot  do  it.  Where  Nouns  are  supposed  to  be 
in  the  First  or  Second  Person,  it  is  the  Pronoun,  either 
expressed  or  understood,  that  is  the  subject  of  the  Verb, 
and  the  Noun  might  as  well  be  in  parenthesis;  as,  I 
(Paul)  have  written  it.  If  in  this  case  the  Noun  Paul 
governed  the  Verb,  or  was  the  subject  of  it,  the  sentence 
would  read  thus  ;  I,  Paul,  has  written  it,  making  gram- 
matical nonsense. 


GENDER. 

GENDER  has  the  same  relation  to  Nouns  that 
sex  has  to  individuals.  Nouns  have  four  Genders  : 
Masculine,  feminine,  Common,  and  Neuter. 
There  are  only  two  Sexes  :  Male  and  Female. 


14  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

The  MASCULINE  GENDER  denotes  the  Male  Sex;  as, 
Man,  lion. 

The  FEMININE  GENDER  denotes  the  Female  Sex  ;  as, 
Woman,  lioness. 

The  COMMON  GENDEK.  denotes  either  Sex,  and  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  word  common  to  both  :  as,  Child,  parent, 
ancestor. 

The  NEUTER  GENDER  denotes  what  is  of  neither  Sex  ; 
as,  Souse,  garden,  piano. 


It  is  seldom  that  an  error  is  made  in  the  use  of  the 
Gender.  Few  persons  would  say,  John  Henderson  was 
bridesmaid,  or  Victoria  is  king  of  -England. 


NUMBER. 

NUMBER  is  the  distinction  of  one  from  more. 
There  are  two  Numbers,  the  Singular  and  the 
Plural.  The  Singular  denotes  one ;  as,  Star, 
tree,  flower.  The  Plural  denotes  more  than  one  ; 
as,  Stars,  trees,  flowers. 


The  Plural  is  generally  formed,  as  seen  in  the 
preceding  examples,  by  adding  s  to  the  Singular.  Nouns 
ending  in  ss,  sh,  ch.,  x,  o,  necessarily  require  cs ;  as, 
Glasses,  brushes,  churches,  foxes,  heroes. 


^,  Nouns  ending  in  y,  when  a  consonant  precedes  it, 
have  y  changed  into  ies ;  as,  Lady,  ladies;  family,  fami- 
lies. Nouns  ending  in  y  when  a  vowel  precedes  it  retain 
the  y ;  as,  Attorney,  attorneys;  chimney,  chimneys. 


Remember  particularly,  thai,  whether  the  plural 
ends  in  s,  an  es,  or  an  ies,  the  last  sound  upon  the  ear  is 
that  of  "s";  hence  euphony  demands  that  the  plural 
Verb  should  at  all  times  reject  the  additional  s  ;  as,  Floiv- 
ers  grow,  not.  grows;  stars  twinkle,  not  twinkles. 


NOUNS.  !."> 

Sjp3  SINGULAR  NOUNS  coupled  with  and  form  a  plural, 
and  become  an  equivalent  to  the  plural  ending  in  s,  requir- 
ing   the  same  Verb ;  as,  John  and  Robert — an  equivalent 
to  boys — play  ;   Mary  and  Lucy — an  equivalent  to  girls- 
laugh. 


The  following  outlaws  never    submit    to    rule : — 

Manxmen;  woman,  women;  child,  children ;  foot,  feet ; 
ox,  oxen;  tooth,  teeth;  goose,  geese ;  mouse,  mice;  penny, 
pence. 


SOMK  NOUNS  are  the  same  in  both  numbers  ;  as, 
Sheep,  deer,  swine,  hose,  means,  news,  species,  corps, 
apparatus. 


SOME  NOUNS  have  no  Singular  ;  as,  Embers,  oats, 
tongs,  scissors,  vespers,  ashes,  clothes.  Some  have  no 
Plural  ;  as,  Gold,  mud,  business,  molasses,  hay,  flax, 
dust,  pride,  ambition. 


In  pluralizing  proper  names,  general  usage  £us- 
tains,  the  two  Miss  Edmonsons,  the  three  Miss  Crosbys  ; 
pedantic  accuracy  calls  for,  the  two  Misses  Edmondson, 
the  three  Misses  Crosby  —  the  former  is  certainly  the  more 
preferable  arrangement. 


CASE. 

CASE  is  the  relation  one  Noun  bears  to  another, 
or  to  a  Verb,  or  Preposition.  There  are  three 
Cases  :  the  Nominative^  Possessive,  and  Objective. 

The  Nominative  simply  names  the  principal  actor,  or 
agent,  in  the  sentence  ;  as,  Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost ; 
Wars  impoverish  a  nation. 

The  Possessive  implies  possession  ;  as,  Smith's  Astrono- 
my ;  Napoleon  s  army. 

The  Objective  denotes  the  object  of  a  Verb  or  Preposi- 
tion ;  as,  Cicero  expelled  Catiline;  The  merchant  live* 
within  his 


16  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 


The  Nominative  Case  and  the  Objective  are  always 
alike  in  spelling  and  pronunciation  ;  as,  God  created  the 
universe  ;  Saints  worship  God. 


In  forming  the  Possessive  Case,  when  the  plural 
ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added ;  as,  The  Ladies' 
Fair  ;  the  Mechanics'  Institute. 


Singular  Nouns  ending  in  s  must  not  be  confused 
with  those  in  the  plural ;  hence  instead  of  saying 
Burns  Poems,  we  should  say  Burns's  Poems. 


When  property  is  owned  in  common  the  last  term 
only  receives  the  Possessive  sign ;  as,  Hogg,  Brown  and 
Taylor's  store. 


When  individual  ownership  is  expressed,  each  re- 
ceives the  sign ;  as,  Parker's  and  Wilson  s  farm  were  sold 
yesterday.  Note,  we  don't  say  farms,  because  one  farm 
of  each  is  meant ;  for  if  the  Noun  be  made  plural  where 
it  is  expressed,  it  will  also  be  plural  where  it  is  implied. 
Parker's  and  Wilson's  farms  would  imply  two  or  more 
of  each  ;  but  Parker's  and  Wilson's  farm  only  imply  one 
belonging  to  each  person.  Perhaps,  Parker's  farm  and 
Wilson  s  were  sold  yesterday,  is  a  better  arrangement  for 
the  singular;  it  is  certainly  more  explicit. 


In  forming  the  Possessive  Case  of  Nouns  that  are 
the  same  in  both  numbers,  the  apostrophe  is  placed  before 
the  s  in  the  singular  number,  and  after  it  in  the  plural ; 
as,  Singular,  Deer's;  Plural,  Deers'. 


Of  is  sometimes  used  to  express  the  Possessive, 
and  in  harsh  sentences  is  certainly  preferable  to  the  's ; 
as,  The  length  of  the  day ;  The  wisdom  of  Socrates. 
These  phrases  are  certainly  more  elegant  than,  The  flays 
length,  or,  Socrates's  wisdom. 


The  Preposition  of,  used  to  express  the  Posses- 
sive, leads  occasionally  to  what  is  termed  by  some  gram- 
marians "  Double  Possessives  ;  "  as,  This  is  a  horse  of 
Kelleys,  namely,  one  of  Kelley's  horses ;  A  speech  of 
President  Grant's,  namely,  one  of  President  Grant's 


ADJECTIVES.  17 

speeches.  These  Double  Posscssives  are  only  allowable 
when  the  Noun  is  distributive,  or  one  of  many,  as  in  the 
preceding  examples. 

NOMINATIVE,    POSSESSIVE,    OBJECTIVE. 

The  lightnings  flash  along  the  sky, 
The  thunder  bursts  and  rolls  on  high  ; 
Jehovah's  voice  methinks  I  hear 

Amid  the  »lorm, 
As  riding  on  the  clouds  of  even, 
He  spreads  his  glory  o'er  the  heaven. 


ADJECTIVES. 


ADJECTIVES  imply  character ;  or,  an  Adjective 
is  a  word  added  to  a  Noun,  to  give  character  to 
those  objects  which  the  Nouns  represent ;  as,  An 
interesting  child ;  a  large  city ;  a  happy  home ; 
a  pure  thought. 

Every  person  and  object  in  nature,  from  Deity  on  his 
throne,  to  the  little  pearly  dew-drop  trembling  on  the 
flower  petal,  possesses  character,  and  the  word  that  de- 
fines the  character  is  an  Adjective  : — 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 
With  countless  beauties  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 
Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 


18  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

COMPARISON. 

COMPARISON  is  called  into  use  when  rivalry  in 
character  exists.  There  are  three  Degrees  of  Com- 
parison : — the  Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the 
Superlative.  The  Positive  expresses  the  ordinary 
character  without  comparison  with  any  other  ;  as, 
Miss  Ellis  is  a  tall  lady ;  Boston  is  a  large  city. 
The  Comparative  is  used  when  two  characters  are 
in  rivalry  wdth  each  other ;  as,  Miss  Harding  is 
taller  than  Miss  Ellis ;  New  York  is  a  larger  city 
than  Boston.  The  Superlative  is  used  iii  the 
comparison  of  three  objects,  or  more,  and  expresses 
the  highest  or  lowest  extreme  of  character ;  as, 
Miss  F.  is  the  tallest  lady  in  Boston  ;  Rhode  Island 
is  the  smallest  State  in  the  Union. 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  examples,  that 
the  Comparative  of  Adjectives  is  formed  by  adding  er  to 
the  Positive ;  and  the  Superlative  by  adding  est ;  as  Tall, 
taller,  tallest,  small,  smaller,  smallest.  Adjectives  of  one 
syllable  should  ever  be  compared  in  this  way. 


ADJECTIVES  of  three  syllables,  and  more  than  three, 
would  offend  the  ear  if  compared  by  er  and  est ;  as  Cour- 
te-ous,  courteouser,  courteousesi;  Ri-dic-u-lous,  ridicu- 
louser,  ridiculousesL  Hence  such  Adjectives  must  be 
compared  by  more  and  most;  as  Courteous,  more  cour- 
teous, most  courteous ;  'Ridiculous,  more  ridiculous,  most 
ridiculous. 


Adjectives  of  two  syllables,  are  like  the  Channel 
Islands  in  the  English  Sea,  with  France  on  one  side, 
and  England  on  the  other  ;  the  natives  are  found  speak- 
ing both  French  and  English.  So  it  is  with  the  two- 
syllable  Adjectives,  having  on  one  side,  those  of  one  syl- 
lable compared  by  er  and  est,  and  on  the  other  side,  those 


ADJECTIVES.  19 

of  three  syllables  compared  by  more  and  most,  making 
the  two-syllable  Adjectives  susceptible  of  either  form  ; 
as,  Po-lite,  politer,  politest;  or.  Polite,  more  polite,  most 
polite.  In  these,  the  speaker  or  writer  can  exercise  his 
own  judgment  and  taste;  for  what  he  prefers  is  law. 


While  the  hoo-syllable  Adjectives  are  susceptible 
of  either  form  of  comparison,  they  do  not  admit  of  both 
at  one  time;  as,  The  most  politest  lady;  The  most  un- 
kindcsi  cut  of  all.  These  phrases  would  be  correct  if 
written,  The  politest  lady,  the  unkindest  cut  of  all ;  or,  The 
most  polite  lady,  the  most  unkind  cut  of  all.  No  Ad- 
jective can  stand  the  double  dose  of  comparison  at  once. 


There  is  no  grammatical  error  committed  in  using 
several  Adjectives  before  one  Noun;  as,  Matilda  is  a  tall, 
handsome,  intelligent  young  lady  ;  R.  Thompson,  Esq.,  is 
an  able,  practical,  and  experienced  lawyer. 


When  two  or  more  Adjectives  requiring  different 
forms  of  comparison  are  placed  before  a  Noun,  the  two 
forms  may  be  retained;  as,  It  is  the  neatest  and  most  eligi- 
ble situation  in  the  city ;  A  sweeter  or  more  amiable  lady 
I  have  never  seen.  Good  usage  suggests  an  other  form, 
shorter  it  is  true,  but  not  quite  so  expressive  ;  namely,  by 
putting  the  grammatical  sign  of  comparison  before  both  ; 
as,  He  is  the  most  rich  and  enterprising  man  in  the  city ; 
I  received  the  most  shrewd  and  practical  suggestions  from 
my  Attorney.  In  these  cases  the  smaller  Adjective  is 
always  placed  before  the  larger  ones. 


When  two  persons  or  objects  are  compared,  and 
two  only,  it  is  better  to  use  the  Comparative  Degree, 
than  the  Superlative ;  as,  James  is  taller  than  John,  or 
the  taller  of  the  two  —  not  the  tallest ;  Mr.  M.  is  more 
industrious  than  Mr.  B.,  or  the  more  industrious  of  the 
two  —  not  the  most  industrious. 


There  is  no  word  in  our  language  superlative  in 
itself,  till  it  is  made  so  by  undergoing  the  ordinary  pro- 
cess of  comparison.  A  list  of  such  words  as  some  gram- 
marians consider  unsusceptible  of  comparison  is  made 
out  in  most  grammars,  but  this  is  waste  labor ;  for  the 


20  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

best  authors  have  swept  those  lists  clean,  and  compared 
every  word  in  them.  Addison  says,  The  eyes  are  the 
most  perfect  of  our  senses.  Goldsmith  says,  And  love  is 
but  an  emptier  name.  The  phrases,  Most  accurate,  most 
sublime,  most  supreme,  most  conclusive,  most  permanent, 
&c.,  are  all  correct. 


The  Numeral  Adjectives,  One,  two,  three,  &c., 
First,  second,  third,  &c.,  Single,  double,  &c.,  as  well  as 
the  Adjectives,  This,  that,  these,  those,  same,  former,  lat- 
ter ;  each,  every,  either,  neither  ;  any,  one,  both,  some, 
all,  other,  another,  such,  have  no  comparison.  The  latter 
are  called  "Pronominal  Adjectives,  "  because  they  are 
sometimes  used  as  Pronouns  ;  as,  I  paid  a  dollar  for  this. 
I  would  call  them  Adjectives  when  they  are  Adjectives, 
and  Pronouns  when  they  are  Pronouns,  and  discourage 
the  use  of  those  compound  names  altogether. 


The  following  Adjectives  are  outlaws  to  rule,  and 
will  not  be  compared  by  the  ordinary  process  of  compari- 
son; they  have  an  arbitrary  form  of  their  own,  and  Princes 
and  Presidents  are  powerless  to  alter  it.  Good,  bad, 
many,  much,  and  little  will  likely  never  submit  to  be 
compared  regularly;  as,  Good,  gooder,  goodest;  Bad, 
badder,  baddest;  much,  mucher,  muchest.  Their  own 
form  they  will  take  perhaps  forever;  as,  Good,  better, 
best;  Bad,  worse,  worst;  Much,  more,  most.  The  word 
"lesser,"  too,  which  according  to  Dr.  Johnson  is  a  barbar- 
ous corruption  of  less,  is  yet  in  frequent  use  by  our  most 
tasteful  authors: — "It  is  the  glowing  style  of  a  man  who 
is  negligent  of  lesser  graces." — Blair.  "These  hills 
seem  things  of  lesser  dignity." — Byron.  This  word 
brought  Webster  to  his  knees  much  against  his  will: 
he  says,  "It  is  a  corruption;  but  it  is  too  well  estab- 
lished to  be  discarded.  Authors  always  write  the  Lesser 
Asia." 


A  Noun  frequently  becomes  an  Adjective,  when 
it  is  used  to  give  character;  as,  A  gold  coin,  a  silver  cup, 
the  morning  star.  Adjectives  of  this  kind  are  seldom 
compared : 


PRONOUNS.  21 


Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make, 

Nor  iron  bars  a  cage  ; 
Minds  innocent  and  quiet  take, 

That  for  a  bermitage. 

A  pebble  in  the  streamlet  scant, 

Has  changed  the  coarse  of  many  a  river ; 
A  dew  drop  on  the  baby  plant, 

Has  warped  the  giant  oak  for  ever. 


PRONOUNS. 


PRONOUNS  are  substitutes  ;  or,  a  Pronoun  is  a 
word  that  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  Noun;  as, 
Victoria  is  a  happy  queen  :  she  reigns  in  the  hearts 
of  her  people. 


Were  there  no  Pronouns,  our  language  would  be 
burdened  by  the  repetition  of  Nouns,  as  in  the  following 
sentence :  When  Washington  had  secured  the  independ- 
ence of  the  United  States,  Washington  retired  to  Wash- 
ington's home,  and  gave  Washington  s  attention  to 
Washington's  private  business.  Supply  the  Pronouns 
after  the  first  Washington,  and  the  sentence  will  read  cor- 
rectly :  When  Washington  had  secured  the  independence 
of  the  United  States,  he  retired  to  his  home,  and  gave  his 
attention  to  his  private  business. 


22  PEOF.    HOWE'S    GEAMMAR. 


Place  a  basket  of  fruit  before  a  number  of  young 
friends,  and  the  Pronouns  will  not  be  long  in  oblivion. 
Instead  of  the  Noun  apple,  or  apples,  one  says,  I'll  take 
this;  an  other  that;  a  third,  I  prefer  these;  a  fourth, 
those;  a  fifth,  I  want  none;  a  sixth,  I'll  take  an  other; 
seventh,  I  don't  care  about  any;  eighth,  here  are  two 
nice  ones,  1  would  like  to  have  both  ;  ninth,  I  cannot  eat 
such;  tenth,  with  a  larger  desire  than  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors, I  want  all  ;  eleventh,  Wliat  has  become  of  the 
apples?  twelfth,  They  are  all  gone  !  Who  has  eaten  them  ? 
These  are  legitimate  Pronouns  as  used  here;  but  if  the 
Noun  apple  or  apples  were  used,  as,  this  apple,  those  apples, 
this  and  those  would  become  Adjectives. 

PRONOUNS  are  divided  into  Personal,  Relative, 
Demonstrative,  and  Distributive. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  are  used  instead  of  the  names  of 
persons,  hence  their  name  personal.  They  are  ;  /,  thou, 
he,  she,  it,  in  the  singular;  and  We,  you,  they,  in  the 
plural.  In  the  order  of  cases  they  are:  I,  mine,  me;  We, 
ours,  us.  Thou,  thine,  thee;  You,  yours,  you.  He,  his, 
him;  They,  theirs,  them.  She,  hers,  her;  They,  theirs, 
them.  It,  its,  it;  They,  theirs,  them. 

$3^'  The  Pronoun  thou  is  never  used  at  the  present 
day,  unless  in  addressing  Deity,  or  amongst  the  Society 
of  Friends.  The  Pronoun  you,  though  once  plural,  is 
now  used  instead  of  thou,  and  has  a  singular  signification 
when  applied  to  an  individual.  It  must  always,  how- 
ever, retain  its  natural  associations,  and  be  accompanied 
with  a  plural  Verb  ;  as,  You  are,  you  were,  you  have. 
Webster's  doctrine  of  a  singular  Verb  accompanying  it 
when  used  instead  of  thou,  is  very  ridiculous  ;  for  no  ear 
could  be  tortured  with  such  phrases  as,  You  is,  you  am, 
you  art,  you  hast,  or  you  was. 

^p°  We  in  the  plural  is  often  used  instead  of  /  in  the 
singular,  especially  by  editors,  authors,  clergymen,  re- 
viewers, and  monarchs.  It  lessens  the  individuality  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Pronoun  you  does  ;  and  like  you, 
it  must  be  followed  with  its  plural  Verb  under  every 
circumstance. 


PRONOUNS.  23 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  arc  words  which  relate  to  Nouns 
or  phrases  going  before  them.  They  are  Who,  which,  and 
that.  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  or  the  higher  intelli- 
gences generally ;  as,  God  who  created  the  universe  is  of 
infinite  power ;  The  man  who  possesses  wealth  should  be 
generous;  The  lady  who  wrote  that  poem  possesses  much 
sweetness  of  disposition ;  The  boy  who  honors  his 
parents  will  be  respected ;  The  girl  who  was  crowned 
"queen"  by  her  classmates,  was  delighted  with  the 
honor. 


Which  is  applied  to  animals  and  inanimate  objects  ; 
as,  The  elephant  ivhich  escaped  from  his  keeper  has  been 
captured  ;  The  rose  which  she  plucked  has  faded.  Which 
is  sometimes  elegantly  omitted: 

I  hear  a  voice — thou  canst  not  hear, 

Which  says  thou  must  not  stay ; 
I  see  a  hand — thou  canst  not  see, 

Which  beckons  me  away. 

£y  THAT  is  used  when  it  would  be  improper  to  use 
either  who  or  which,  or  when  the  repetition  of  either 
becomes  offensive;  as,  The  Sailor  and  boat  that  passed  the 
Light  House  were  never  heard  from ;  (Here  which  would 
be  wrong  because  sailor  requires  WHO  ;  and  who  would 
be  wrong  because  boat  requins  WHICH:  the  difficulty  is 
got  over  by  using  that.}  It  was  Columbus  that  dis- 
covered America ;  The  watch  that  I  found  I  returned  to 
its  owner. 


The  Noun  or  phrase  to  which  the  relative  belongs, 
is  called  the  Antecedent,  and  the  Relative  is  dependent 
upon  it  for  its  Person,  Gender,  and  Number.  In  the  last 
example  above,  "that"  is  in  the  third  Person,  neuter  Gen- 
der, and  singular  Number,  because  "  Watch,"  its  antece- 
dent, is  in  the  third  Person,  neuter  Gender,  singular  Num- 
ber. 


The  COMPOUND  RELATIVES  include  both  the 
Antecedent  and  the  Relative ;  as,  Whoever  said  so  spoke 
truly ;  that  is,  The  man  who  said  so  spoke  truly.  The 


24  PROF.    HOWE'S    GEAMMAR. 

Compound  Relatives  are,  Whoever,  whosoever,  whomso- 
ever ;  whichever,  whichsoever  ;  what,  whatever,  and 
whatsoever. 


When  the  relative  has  lost  its  antecedent,  it  finds  it 
immediately,  by  changing  itself  into  an  Interrogative  ;  as 
Who  wrote  the  Illiad,  and  was  called  the  Prince  of  Poets  ? 
Answer  :  Homer.  In  this  way  some  of  the  Relatives 
become  what  grammarians  call  "  Interrogative  Pronouns." 


Who  and  Which,  as  Relatives  and  as  Interroga- 
tives,  are  thus  declined  in  the  order  of  their  cases  :  Sin- 
gular and  Plural,  Who,  whose,  wfyom  ;  Which,  wltose, 
which.  What  has  no  variation.  That  has  whose  in  the 
Possessive,  but  has  no  objective.  Whoever  and  ivlwsoevcr 
are  declined  like  who. 


Whose,  as  the  true  Possessive  of  ivhich,  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  best  classical  authority  :  "A  triangle,  one  of 
whose  sides  is  perpendicular  to  another." — Brougham; 
"  Cedar  groves  whose  gigantic  branches  threw  a  refreshing 
coolness  over  the  verdure." — Prescott. 

DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  specify  particularly  what 
objects  or  words  are  meant.  The  Demonstratives  are, 
This,  that,  these,  those,  former,  and  latter. 


When  two  objects  that  may  be  seen  are  con- 
trasted, this  refers  to  the  one  near  the  speaker,  and  that  to 
the  one  further  away;  as,  This  —  referring  to  the  object 
near  —  cost  four  dollars  ;  that  cost  two. 


When  words  passing  from  the  lips  are  contrasted, 
this  refers  to  the  one  last  spoken,  and  that  to  the  first, 
because  it  is  further  away  ;  as,  The  rose  and  lily  are 
emblematical  ;  this  of  purity,  that  of  honesty. 

Self-love,  the  spring  of  motion  guides  the  soul  ; 
Reason's  comparing  balance  rules  the  whole  : 
Man  but  for  thiti,  no  motion  could  attend, 
And  but  for  that,  were  active  to  no  end. 

85P  When  objects  in  the  plural,  that  may  be  seen,  are 
contrasted,  these  refers  to  the  ones  near  the  speaker,  and 


PRONOUNS.  25 

those  to  the  ones  further  away;  as,  These  —  flowers  near 
at  hnnd  —  emit  delicious  perfume,  those  are  faded  and 
worthless. 


When  words  in  the  plural  are  contrasted,  these 
refers  to  the  one  last  spoken,  and  those  to  the  first  ;  as, 
It  is  better  to  fall  among  vultures  than  flatterers;  those 
devour  the  dead  only,  these  the  living. 

Farewell  my  friends!  Farewell  my  foes  ! 

My  peace  with  these,  my  love  to  those.  —  Burns. 

g^3  Former  and  latter  have  a  similar  use  ;  as,  Body 
and  soxl  must  part  ;  the  latter  wings  its  way  to  its 
Almighty  source,  the  former  drops  into  the  dark  and  silent 
grave. 

DISTRIBUTIVE  PRONOUNS  are  those  which  refer  to  a 
number  of  objects  taken  separately.  They  are  Each, 
every,  either,  neither.  Distributive  Pronouns  are  always 
used  in  the  Singular  Number  and  in  the  Third  Person, 
even  when  they  relate  to  the  persons  speaking,  the  per- 
sons addressed,  as  well  as  to  the  persons  spoken  of;  as, 
Each  of  us  had  more  than  he  wanted  ;  Each  of  you  had 
more  than  he  wanted  ;  Each  of  them  had  more  than  he 
wanted. 


Every  was  once  in  good  standing  as  a  Pronoun, 
but  as  it  cannot  be  now  used  without  its  Noun  it  is  a  mere 
Adjective.  We  can  say,  each  received  a  prize  ;  but  we 
cannot  say,  every  received  a  prize :  every  requires  its 
Noun  after  it  to  make  sense ;  as,  Every  student  received 
a  prize  for  his  good  behavior ;  Every  tempest  and  every 
dew-drop  has  its  mission ; 

Every  tongue  and  every  eye 
Does  homage  to  the  passer-by. 

|3P  Each  denotes  two  or  more  objects  ;  Every  denotes 
more  than  two  ;  Either  and  Neither  refer  to  two  only  and 
never  more.  If  a  greater  number  than  two  be  named, 
where  it  might  appear  that  Either  or  Neither  could  be 
used,  adopt  the  terms  any  one,  or  not  one  as  the  case  may 


26  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

be  ;  as,  Three  or  more  houses  were  searched  for  stolen 
property,  and  none  was  found  in  any  one  of  them;  Three 
or  more  prisoners  were  tried  yesterday,  and  not  one  of 
them  was  found  guilty. 


As  there  is  no  Pronoun  of  the  COMMON  GENDER 
in  the  English  language,  speakers  and  writers  are  contin- 
ually under  the  necessity  of  using  such  terms  as,  he  or 
she,  his  or  hers,  him  or  her,  in  speaking  or  writing  of  a 
mixed  company,  to  avoid  using  the  plural  pronoun  they, 
their,  theirs,  or  them,  which  would  be  quite  ungrammati- 
cal  in  this  connection.  Nothing  is  more  offensive  to  an 
educated  ear  than  to  hear  a  person  say,  Every  one 
should  dress  according  to  their  own  taste  and  fancy  ;  it 
should  be,  "  according  to  his  or  her  own  taste  and  fancy." 


Either  and  Neither,  as  Pronouns,  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  Either  and  Neither  as  Adjectives, 
or  Conjunctions.  When  Pronouns,  they  are  used  instead 
of,  not  along  with,  their  Nouns;  as,  Either  of  the  roads 
is  good  ;  Neither  of  the  offices  is  filled.  When  Adjectives, 
they  are  used  with  their  Nouns  ;  as,  You  can  take  either 
road  you  please ;  Neither  office  will  suit  the  candidate. 
When  Conjunctions,  they  may  connect  not  only  two  Nouns, 
but  several ;  as,  I  am  satisfied  that  either  John,  or  Wil- 
liam, or  Edward,  or  Thomas,  broke  the  looking-glass ; 
For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor 
angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  things  present,  nor  things 
to  come,  nor  hight,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature 
shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God. 


VKUKS.  27 


VERBS. 


VERBS  imply  action ;  or,  a  Verb  is  a  word  that 
expresses  something  of  its  Noun  or  nominative ; 
as,  Time  flies,  stars  twinkle;  monarchs  rule,  the 
sun  shines.  Verbs  are  of  three  kinds  :  Transitive, 
Passive,  and  Neuter. 

TRANSITIVE  Verbs  express  action  passing  over  from  an 
actor  to  an  object;  as,  Antony  beheaded  Cicero;  Milton 
wrote  Paradise  Lost. 


The  action  represented  by  the  Transitive  Verb 
passes  like  the  arrow  from  the  bow  of  the  archer  to  its 
victim  beyond,  and  strikes  with  unerring  certainty. 
Should  the  arrow  droop  in  its  flight  and  fail  to  strike, 
no  Transitive  Verb  in  that  particular  instance  existed. 


While  every  school  and  college  in  America  and 
Great  Britain  teaches  that  the  Transitive  Verbs  of  our 
language  govern  Thirty  thousand  Nouns  and  sixty  Pro- 
nouns ;  and  every  teacher  and  student  believes  that  in 
every  word  lies  a  possible  error,  it  should  form  an  inter- 
esting fact  in  the  history  of  Grammar,  to  learn  that  the 
Transitive  Verbs  govern  or  control  only  SEVEN  WORDS 
altogether :  Me,  thee,  him,  her,  us,  them,  and  whom. 
When  these  words  are  correctly  used  in  speaking  and 


28  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAN  MA  II. 

writing,  there  is  not  an  other  word  in  the  English  language 
in  which  an  error  can  take  place,  under  the  influence 
of  the  Transitive  Verbs  for  ever  ! 


To  insure  correctness  in  this  particular,  the  neces- 
sary effort  will  not  occupy  more  than  five  or  ten  minutes 
labor,  while  as  many  years  fail  to  establish  or  secure  equal 
certainty,  as  the  Science  is  now  taught  throughout  the 
world.  All  that  has  to  be  done  is  to  make  use  of  any 
Transitive  Verb  required  in  connection  with  those  seven 
words  named,  and  familiarize  the  tongue  with  them  :  as, 

The  President  invited  me. 
The  President  invited  thee. 
The  President  invited  him,. 
The  President  invited  her. 
The  President  invited  us. 
The  President  invited  them. 
The  President  invited  whom. 

PASSIVE  VERBS  ars  those  which  represent  the  receiving 
or  suffering  of  the  action  of  an  other;  as,  Cicero  was 
beheaded  by  Antony;  Moscow  was  taken  by  Napoleon. 


In  the  formation  of  Passive  Verbs,  they  are  found 
to  be  the  mere  reverse  of  the  Transitive;  thus,  Brutus 
stabbed  Caesar  is  Transitive ;  and  Caesar  was  stabbed  by 
Brutus,  is  Passive. 

NEUTER  VERBS,  very  appropriately  called  by  some 
grammarians  Intransitive,  represent  a  state  of  existence, 
or  action,  confined  to  the  actor ;  as.  Flowers  grow :  The 
sentinel  sleeps  ;  The  river  Jordan  flows  into  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  Neuter  Verb  Be,  or  some  part  of  it,  is  at  all  times 
used  as  an  auxilliary  in  the  formation  of  the  Passive  ; 
as,  The  criminal  will  be  pardoned  ;  The  oak  was  shattered 
by  lightning ;  The  cities  were  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

MOOD  or  Mode  means  manner ;  and,  grammatically, 
shows  the  manner  in  which  the  Verb  states  something  of 
its  Nominative.  Verbs  have  four  Moods  :  The  Indica- 
tive, Potential,  Subjunctive,  £hd  Imperative. 


VERBS.  29 

The  Indicative  asserts  an  actual  occurrence,  or  living 
truth  ;  as.  Prince  Arthur  visited  the  United  States  ;  Gali- 
leo invented  the  telescope  ; 

That  very  law  that  moulds  a  tear, 

And  bids  it  trickle  from  its  source  ; 
That  law  preserves  the  earth  a  sphere, 

And  guides  the  planets  in  their  course. 

|y  The  facts  asserted  by  the  Indicative  may  have 
reference  to  any  time,  past,  present,  or  future  ;  as,  Nero 
burned  Rome ;  Victoria  reigns  in  England ;  Henry  W. 
Beecher  will  preach  in  Washington  next  Sunday. 

J5P  The  Indicative  asks  questions  also ;  as,  Did  Nero 
burn  Rome  ?  Does  Victoria  reign  in  England  ?  Will 
Henry  W.  Beecher  preach  in  Washington  next  Sunday  ? 

The  Potential  implies  the  power  to  do,  or  asserts  the 
mere  possibility  of  an  action  ;  as,  The  President  can  par- 
don political  prisoners  ;  Charles  Dickens  may  repeat  his 
visit  to  America. 

Potential  means  the  having  power  or  will ; 

As,  If  yon  would  improve,  you  should  be  still. —  Tobitt. 

^p3  The  Potential,  like  the  Indicative,  asks  questions ; 
and  these  are  the  only  Moods  which  can  be  changed  into 
Interrogatives  : 

Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust, 
Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ">. 

Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death? 

The  Subjunctive  represents  an  action  depending  on  a 
future  uncertainty;  as,  If  thy  brother  trespass  against 
thee,  rebuke  him ;  and,  if  he  repent,  forgive  him. 

%3p"  It  is  the  future  uncertainty  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker,  and  not  the  Conjunction  "If,"  that  calls  particu- 
larly for  the  Subjunctive  Mood:  as,  If  it  rain  to-morrow 
I  cannot  go  to  Chnrlestown.  //  is  frequently  used  in  the 
Indicative,  expressing  an  admitted  fact ;  as,  If  he  has 
money  he  keeps  it. 

I3JP"  Grammarians  have  ever  found  the  Subjunctive 
Mood  a  puzzle  and  a  source  of  much  annoyance  ;  hence 


30 


PROF.    HOWES    GRAMMAR. 


the  desire  so  visibly  manifested  to  bring  it  into  disuse. 
To  me  it  is  one  of  the  special  beauties  of  the  English 
language,  giving  the  speaker  the  power  of  expressing  all 
future  uncertainties,  in  distinct  and  direct  contrast  with 
the  certainties  of  the  Indicative.  The  following  rule  will, 
I  hope,  be  sufficiently  explicit,  to  make  it  practically  use- 
ful under  every  circumstance : — Drop  the  final  s  from 
the  Present  Indicative  : — 


INDICATIVE. 

He  pays. 
He  pardons. 
He  repents. 
He  refuses. 
He  persecutes. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

If  he  pay. 
If  he  pardon. 
If  he  repent. 
If  he  refuse. 
If  he  persecute. 


To  this  simple  rule  there  are  only  two  exceptions 
in  the  language,  namely  the  two  radical  verbs  Have  and 
Be.  When  these  are  added,  all  will  be  complete: — Indie. 
He  is;  Sub.  If  he  be.  Indie.  He  has;  Sub.  If  he  have. 
Indie.  He  was;  Sub.  If  he  were,  or,  were  he. 


The  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  Subjunctive 
Mood  is,  that  it  never  changes  its  form  like  the  Indicative. 
As  soon  as  it  is  found  for  one  person,  it  is  had  for  every 
person,  whether  in  the  Singular  Number  or  in  the  Plural, 
for  ever: — 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I  work. 
Thou  workest. 
He  works. 

We  work. 
You  work. 
They  work. 

If  I  work. 
If  thou  work. 
If  he  work. 

If  we  work. 
If  you  work. 
If  they  work. 

1  pardon. 
Thou  pardonest. 
He  pardons. 

I  am. 
Thou  art. 
He  is. 

We  pardon. 
You  pardon. 
They  pardon. 

We  are. 
You  are. 
They  are. 

If  I  pardon. 
If  thou  pardon. 
If  he  pardon. 

If  I  be. 

If  thou  be. 
If  he  be. 

If  we  pardon. 
If  you  pardon. 
If  they  pardon. 

If  we  be. 
If  you  be. 
If  they  be. 

I  have. 
Thou  hast. 
He  has. 

We  have.                  If  I  have. 
You  have.                  If  thoti  have. 
They  have.                If  he  have. 

If  we  have. 
If  you  have. 
If  they  have. 

VERBS.  31 

The  IMPERATIVE  is  that  Mood  or  form  of  the  Verb  by 
which  we  urge  our  claims  and  wishes  upon  others.  First, 
upon  our  inferiors,  by  command:  as,  Go!  Second,  upon 
our  equals,  by  counsel;  as,  Honor  thy  father  and  thy 
mother.  Third,  upon  our  superiors,  by  supplication;  as, 
Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

COUNSEL. 
Deal  with  another  as  you'd  have 

Another  deal  with  you  ; 
What  you're  unwilling  to  receive, 

Be  sure  you  never  do. 

SUPPLICATION. 

Thou  Being, 

All  seeing, 
0,  hear  my  fervent  prayer; 

Still  take  her, 

And  make  her, 
Thy  most  peculiar  care ! 

TENSE  is  the  distinction  of  time.  The  great  ocean  of 
time,  with  its  restless  surface  ever  in  motion,  is  spread 
out  before  us,  and  lies  at  our  feet.  There  are  waves  ever 
present,  lashing  the  shore  where  we  stand ;  waves  ever 
receding,  and  waves  ever  approaching,  making  the  three 
grand  divisions  of  time,  the  PRESENT,  PAST  and  FUTURE. 
These  are  again  very  appropriately  sub-divided  into,  the 
Present,  and  Present  Perfect;  the  Past,  and  Past  Perfect; 
and  the  Future,  and  Future  Perfect. 

The  PRESENT  TENSE  expresses  what  now  exists,  or  is 
taking  place;  as,  The  sun  shines;  The  flowers  are  growing. 

fy  The  PRESENT  TENSE  expresses  all  periods  of 
time  embracing  the  present  moment;  as,  This  hour,  this 
day,  this  year,  this  century. 

|^"  The  PRESENT  TENSE  is  used  to  express  all  great 
truths  ;  as,  Vice  producer  misery  ;  Virtue  elevates  the  hu- 
man race. 

f3^  The  PRESENT  TENSE  is  used  to  express  all  habits 
and  customs  ;  as,  Edward  smokes ;  Emily  dresses  neatly; 
The  sun  rises  every  morning  and  sets  every  evening. 


32  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

pp3  The  PRESENT  TENSE  is  used  in  animated  narration 
to  express  past  events,  creating  an  interest  in  the 
speaker's  mind,  so  that  the  events  seem  to  be  passing  be- 
fore him ;  as,  Csesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon, 
and  enters  Rome  in  triumph. 

What  sounds  upon  the  midnight  wind 
Approach  so  rapidly  behind  ? 
It  is,  it  is,  the  tramp  of  steeds  ; 
Matilda  hears  the  sound,  she  speeds, 
Seizes  upon  the  leader's  rein. 

The  PRESENT  PERFECT  Tense  is  used  to  represent 
past  events  as  perfectly  finished  in  present  time  ;  as,  We 
have  completed  the  task ;  My  father  has  purchased  the  es- 
tate. 


This  Tense  is  used  to  express  past  events  whose 
effects  remain  to  the  present ;  as,  Milton  has  written  some 
noble  works  ;  Cicero  has  written  orations.  We  cannot 
say,  Cicero  has  written  poems,  because  they  have  ceased 
to  exist ;  in  this  instance  we  would  say,  Cicero  wrote 
poems. 

This  Tense  is  very  comprehensive,  and  grasps  all  past 
time,  from  the  Creation  to  the  present.  It  matters  not 
how  long  ago  the  action  may  have  been  performed,  the 
phraseology  of  the  Present  Perfect  may  be  used,  so  long 
as  the  time  of  the  action  is  not  named;  as,  God  has 
created  the  heavens. 


When  the  time  of  the  event  is  mentioned,  how- 
ever near  it  may  be  to  the  present,  the  phraseology  must 
be  changed  into  that  of  the  Past  Tense ;  as,  I  have  seen 
the  Prince  a  moment  ago ;  should  be,  I  saw  the  Prince  a 
moment  ago. 

The  use  of  this  Tense  is  so  delicately  beautiful  in  its 
application  to  language,  that  it  cannot  be  used,  if  the 
slightest  hint  is  made  to  any  point  of  past  time ;  as,  He 
has  been  formerly  subject  to  fits  of  insanity ;  should  be, 
He  was  formerly  subject  to  fits  of  insanity. 

The  PAST  TENSE  is  used  to  express  past  events ;  as, 
David  loved  Jonathan  ;  The  Empress  Eugenia  was  present 
at  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal. 


VERBS.  33 

This   Tense   like   the  Present   sometimes    denotes 
custom  ;  as, 

Thirty  steeds,  both  fleet  and  wight, 
Stood  saddled  in  stable  day  and  night, 
A  hundred  more  fed  free  in  Btall  ; 
Such  was  the  custom  in  Bransome  hall. 

The  PAST  PERFECT  Tense  is  used  to  express  actions  or 
events  completely  finished  in  past  time,  before  other 
actions  or  events  took  place  ;  as,  The  ship  had  sailed  be- 
fore he  reached  Glasgow  ;  The  cars  had  started  when  he 
arrived  at  the  station. 

In  order  to  use  this  Tense  correctly,  allow  the  two  ac- 
tions or  events  to  pass  before  the  imagination,  and  use 
had  to  the  first  one,  as  in  the  preceding  examples. 

The  FUTURE  Tense  represents  future  actions  ;  as,  I 
will  see  you  again,  and  your  heart  shall  rejoice. 

This  Tense  may  foretell  a  future  custom  ;  as,  The  wolf 
shall  dwell  with  the  lamb  ;  The  lion  shall  eat  straw  like 
the  ox. 

The  FUTURE  PERFECT  is  used  to  represent  finished  ac- 
tions in  future  time  ;  as,  The  fortress  when  finished  will 
have  cost  a  million. 


This  Tense  represents  actions  or  events  limited  to 
a  certain  point  of  time  in  the  future,  forming  as  it  were  a 
barrier  thrown  up  in  the  way,  past  which  the  perform- 
ance of  the  action  cannot  pass.  The  action  thus  arrested 
is  forced  to  be  fully  completed,  before  the  limiting  point 
of  time  is  reached  ;  as,  The  debt  will  have  been  paid 
before  the  first  of  June  next  ;  The  mansion  will  have  been 
completed  before  New  Year's  day. 


WILL  AND  SHALL. 

These  two  words  have  very  different  meaning, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  examples  :  ] 
>/•///  be  drowned  and  nobody  shall  save  me ;  I 
shall  be  drowned  and  nobody  will  save  me. 


34  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 


WILL.     When  a  person  resolves   for  himself,  he 
uses  will;  as,  I  will  write  to  Washington  to-day. 

%gr  SHALL.  When  a  person  resolves  for  another,  he 
uses  shall,  and  the  use  of  this  word  implies  an  authority 
in  the  speaker  to  enforce  the  act  if  necessary  :  as,  You 
shall  pay  that  bill  to-morrow ;  he  shall  leave  the  estab- 
lishment for  his  impertinence. 

1^°  WILL.  When  a  person  foretells  or  simply  PRE- 
DICTS for  another,  he  uses  will;  as,  He  will  remove  to 
Philadelphia  in  the  Spring. 

J^p3  SHALL.  When  a  person  foretells  or  simply  PRE- 
DICTS for  himself,  he  uses  shall;  as,  I  shall  see  my  father 
this  afternoon.  Brightlaiad  writes  : 

In  the  FIRST  PERSON*  simply  shall  foretells  , 
In  will  a  THREAT  or  else  a  PROMISE  dwells. 
Shall,  in  the  SECOND  and  the  THIRD,  does  threat  ; 
Will,  simply,  Hien,  foretells  the  future  feat. 


REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

The  English  language  is  supposed  to  contain 
about  8000  Verbs,  of  which  upwards  of  7800  are 
Regular.  These  form  their  fast  tense  and  Pre- 
sent Perfect,  by  a  uniform  process  of  adding  d  or 
ed  to  the  Present;  as,  I  love,  I  loved,  I  have 
loved;  I  preach,  I  preached,  I  have  preached. 
Those  Verbs  which  do  not  form  their  Past  tense 
and  Present  Perfect  by  undergoing  a  similar  pro- 
cess are  called  Irregular ;  as,  I  see,  I  saw,  I  have 
seen,'  He  knows,  he  knew,  he  has  known. 


The  IRREGULAR  VERBS  are  gradually  and  steadily 
growing  fewer  and  fewer  every  day  ;  and  the  time  will 
probably  come  when  they  can  be  numbered  by  the  dozen 
or  the  score,  instead  of  by  the  hundred  as  they  are  to- 


VKKHS.  35 

day.  Watch  the  infant  boy  as  he  first  lisps  our  language, 
catching  up  its  spirit  and  its  tendency,  shouting,  I  seed 
him  do  it ;  I  knowed  he'd  break  my  pencil ;  the  bee 
stinged  me.  Of  course  the  educated  ear  very  properly 
rejects  these  offensive  intrusions,  and  more  particularly 
as  they  are  reechoed  from  the  lips  of  older  persons ;  but, 
judging  from  the  past,  and  noting  the  steadily  increasing 
pressure  of  the  Regular  Verbs  upon  the  lessening  minori- 
ty, the  fate  of  the  Irregular  Verbs  is  certain. 

Once  it  was  quite  correct  to  say,  She  holp  her  friend ; 
he  clomb  the  fence  ;  it  snew  yesterday ;  he  wrought  a 
week.  Now  we  say,  She  helped  her  friend  ;  he  climbed 
the  fence  ;  it  snowed  yesterday  ;  he  worked  a  week.  So 
words  change,  and  the  knew  of  the  present  century,  may, 
in  the  distant  future  become  as  ridiculous  to  the  ear,  as 
the  clomb  or  snew  of  our  ancestors  is  to  us  to-day.  Mil- 
ton wrote : 

So  clomb  the  first  grand  thief  into  God's  fold  ; 
So  ~ince  into  his  church  lewd  hirelings  cliuib. 

^p3  While  the  Irregular  Verbs  exist,  the  true  scholar 
is  familiar  with  every  one  of  them  and  uses  it  properly. 
In  all  our  Text-books  of  Grammar  they  stand  in  three 
columns,  headed  and  arranged  as  follows  : 

IRREGULAR      VERBS. 

Present.  Past.  Past  Participle. 

Am,  Was,  Been, 

Arise,  Arose,  Arisen,  &c. 

The  student,  instead  of  reciting  these  as  school-boys 
generally  do,  Present  Am,  Past  was,  Past  Participle  been, 
should  place  a  Pronoun  before  each,  and  slowly  repeat  it 
thus  :  I  am,  I  was,  I  have  been ;  I  arise,  I  arose,  I  have 
arisen  ;  remembering  particularly  that  the  Past  Participle 
must  ever  have  an  auxiliary  before  it,  as  above. 

|5P  I  see  no  use  in  grammarians  retaining  in  their  list 
of  Irregular  Verbs  as  they  do,  those  which  are  regular. 
If  regular,  let  them  be  used  as  such  ;  and  in  this  way 
the  long  list  of  Irregular  Verbs  will  be  much  reduced,  and 


36  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

the  science  of  the  English  tongue  much  simplified. 
Lord  Kames,  in  his  Elements  of  Criticism,  highly  eulo- 
gises Dean  Swift,  for  rejecting,  in  his  time,  many  of  those 
"ugly"  contractions.  So,  in  this  day,  the  person  who 
by  counsel  or  example,  will  assist  in  the  good  work  of 
establishing  a  uniformity  in  our  language  by  lessening 
the  number  of  irregular  contractions,  and  speaking  and 
writing  those  of  them  as  regular  which  are  regular,  will 
equally  deserve  well  of  the  present  and  future  generations. 

^p3  I  have  carefully  selected  the  following  Verbs 
marked  R,  from  the  Irregular  Verbs  of  the  Text-books. 
They  are  recognized  by  all  grammarians  as  Regular ;  and 
as  such,  the  sooner  they  are  brought  into  universal  usage 
the  better :  Acquit,  awake  ;  Bereave,  bless,  blow,  burn 
burst ;  Catch,  clothe,  creep,  crow,  curse ;  Dare,  dive, 
dream,  dress,  dwell :  Gild,  gird ;  Heat,  heave,  hew ; 
Kneel,  knit ;  Lean,  leap,  learn,  light ;  Mean,  mow ; 
Pass,  pen,  plead,  prove;  Quit;  Roast;  Saw,  seethe, 
shape,  shave,  shear,  shine,  show,  smell,  sow,  spell,  spoil, 
stave,  stay,  swell ;  Thrive,  throw  ;  Wake,  wax,  wed,  weep, 
whet,  work.  By  this  arrangement,  the  Irregular  Verbs 
of  the  language  will  be  reduced  to  about  a  hundred. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS  are  those  which  assist  others  ;  as, 
He  was  invited  ;  and  they  can  be  only  used  before  Past 
Participles  under  any  circumstance ;  as,  He  had  seen  ; 
He  has  won ;  We  have  written. 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS  are  those  which  want  some  of  their 
principal  parts ;  as, 

Present.  Past.  Past  Participle. 

Can  Could  Wanting 

May  Might 

Must  Must 

Ought  Ought 

Shall  Should 

Will  Would 

Quoth  Quoth 

l^p1"  From  the  preceding  list  it  will  be  visible  that  the 
Defective  Verbs  have  no  Participle  ;  and  hence  there  is 


VERBS.  37 

not  one  word  of  them  before  which  an  Auxiliary  can  be 
placed.  The  impropriety  then  of  saying,  I  had  ought,  I 
hadn't  ought,  is  understood;  and  it  is  just  as  ridiculous 
as  if  the  Auxiliary  had  been  placed  before  any  other 
Defective  Verb  in  the  list  ;  as,  He  had  can :  He  had 
must ;  He  had  quoth  ;  He  had  ought.  Take  away  the 
Auxiliary  had,  and  the  expressions  will  be  correct;  as, 
He  can  do  so  ;  He  must  do  so  ;  He  ought  to  do  so. 


To  secure  a  simple  form  of  agreement  between  the 
Noun  and  Verb,  is  an  object  of  much  anxiety  to  many, 
and  it  should  be  one  of  ardent  aspiration  to  all,  and  to 
extemporaneous  speakers  particularly.  As  social  conver- 
sation and  public  addresses  are  so  generally  conducted  in 
the  Third  Person  and  Present  Tense,  the  speaker  should 
remember  that  the  Plural  of  Nouns  is  formed  by  adding 
an  s  to  the  singular,  and  the  Plural  of  Verbs  by  dropping 
the  s  from  the  singular ;  consequently  in  all  Syntactical 
agreement,  there  is  only  one  s  between  the  two. 

Suppose  then  this  s  suspended  between  the  Noun  and 
the  Verb,  to  be  at  liberty  to  vibrate  between  them,  and 
pass  from  one  to  the  other,  a  most  interesting  and  singu- 
lar simplicity  of  agreement  is  secured  in  every  vibration  : 

NOUN.  n  VERB. 

s 


«<> 

\ 


When  the  s  vibrates  to  the  side  of  the  Noun  and  at- 
taches itself  to  it,  we  have  the  Verb  and  Noun  Plural ; 
and  when  the  s  vibrates  to  the  side  of  the  Verb  and  at- 
taches itself  to  it,  we  have  the  Verb  and  Noun  Singular  : 


38  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 


PLURAL. 


The  apples  ripen. 


SINGULAR. 


The  apple  ripens. 


The  flowers  blossom.  The  flower  blossoms. 

The  jewels  glitter.  Th"1  jewel  glitters. 


An  equivalent  to  the  Noun  in  the  Plural  requires 
the  same  form  of  Verb ;  as,  The  boys  read  correctly.  = 
John  and  Thomas  read  correctly.  The  girls  sing  sweetly. 
=  Ellen  and  Lucy  sing  sweetly.  Empires  sustain  large 
standing  armies.  =  France  and  Russia  sustain  large 
standing  armies. 


The  only  exceptions  to  the  preceding  k's''  arrange- 
ment are  found  in  the  three  words,  Is,  was,  and  has.  It 
does  not  require  much  effort  to  remember,  that  whenever 
these  words  are  used,  either  as  Auxiliaries  or  Principal 
Verbs,  they  are  changed  into  are,  were,  and  have  in  the 
plural.  Hence  we  say,  The  bird  is  singing,  the  birds  are 
singing  ;  The  doctor  was  called,  the  doctors  ivere  called  ; 
The  hour  has  passed  pleasantly,  the  hours  have  passed 
pleasantly. 

PARTICIPLES  are  words  that  participate  in  the  nature 
of  a  Noun,  the  nature  of  an  Adjective,  and  the  nature 
of  a  Verb.  They  are  manufactured  from  the  Radical  Verb, 
always  found  in  the  Present  Infinitive;  as,  To  wonder. 
Add  ing  to  wonder,  and  the  Present  Participle  is  secured ; 
as,  Wondering.  Remove  the  ing,  and  add  ed,  and  the 
Past  Participle  is  secured ;  as,  Wondered.  Place  having 
before  the  Past  Participle,  and  the  Perfect  Participle  is 
secured;  as,  Having  wondered.  In  this  way  the  Parti- 
ciples may  be  secured  from  every  Regular  Verb  in  the 
language. 


The  difference  between  the  Verb  and  the  Partici- 
ple is  this:  the  Verb  asserts;  as,  He  betrayed  his  friend. 
The  Participle  never  asserts;  as,  Betrayed,  he  is  unhappy. 


Participles    influence    and    govern    words,   in    the 
same  manner   as  the  Verbs  from  which  they  emanated. 


ADVKKBS.  39 


ADVERBS. 


ADVERBS  give  character  to  action  ;  or,  an  Ad- 
verb is  a  word  that  qualifies  a  Verb,  an  Adjective, 
or  another  Adverb  ;  as,  Peter  wept  bitterly  ;  Har- 
riet is  exceedingly  clever  ;  John  speaks  very  dis- 
tinctly. The  Adverbs  promote  brevity,  and  add 
much  to  the  beauty  of  the  language,  making  it 
concise  and  elegant  : 

So  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait, 

Till  judgment  speak  the  doom  of  fate  ! 

pp3  The  multifarious  and  metaphysical  divisions  of  the 
Adverb  beyond  those  of  manner,  time,  and  place  may 
form  an  exceedingly  pleasant  pastime  to  the  writer  of  a 
Text-  book,  for  school  exercises;  and  they  certainly  af- 
ford a  rich  opportunity  of  bewildering  the  student  in  his 
perplexing  pilgrimage  of  parsing  and  analyzing  ;  but  they 
are  of  no  practical  value  to  the  speaker,  for  his  ignorance 
of  them  will  never  cause  an  error. 


In  the  use  of  the  Adverb  it  is  only  necessary  to 
know  three  things  :  First,  that  an  Adverb  is  really 
1-ci/n.ired  ;  Second,  to  know  how  to  secure  it;  and  Third, 
to  know  u-hcre  to  put  it.  An  Adverb  is  required  when 
the  speaker  wishes  to  give  character  to  action  ;  as,  The 


40  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

canary  sings  (in  what  manner?)  sweetly.  The  lady 
dances  (in  what  manner?)  gracefully.  These  Adverbs 
were  secured  by  adding  ly  to  the  two  Adjectives  SWEET 
and  GRACEFUL,  making  them  sioeetly,  gracefully.  In 
this  manner  four-fifths  of  the  Adverbs  of  the  language 
may  be  manufactured  by  simply  adding  ly  to  the  Adjec- 
tive. Hence  we  have  polite/?/,  imprudent/?/,  quietly,  'At- 
tentively, handsome/?/,  religious/?/,  temperate/?/,  sufficient- 
ly,  ridiculous/i/,  particular/?/,  intelligent/?/,  and  more  than 
a  thousand  others. 


To  place  the  Adverb,  the  best  general  rule  is, — In 
TRANSITIVE  Verbs  place  the  Adverb  after  the  object 
reached;  as,  John  struck  Thomas  rashly;  the  lightning 
killed  the  man  instantly.  In  PASSIVE  Verbs  place  the 
Adverb  between  the  Auxiliary  and  the  Verb  ;  as,  Thomas 
was  rashly  struck ;  The  man  was  instantly  killed.  In 
NEUTER  Verbs  place  the  Adverb  immediately  after  the 
Verb  ;  as,  The  wind  blows  furiously  •  The  flowers  grow 
rapidly. 

^JT  Whenever  the  complying  with  this  rule  would 
alter  the  sense  or  weaken  it,  it  should  he  promptly  sus- 
pended, and  the  Adverb  located  where  the  speaker's 
meaning  would  be  more  correctly  expressed. 

J^p3  When  ADVERBS  qualify  Adjectives  or  other  Ad- 
verbs, the  qualifying  word  is  always  placed  before  them  ; 
as,  It  is  a  particularly  interesting  story  ;  They  conducted 
themselves  very  improperly. 

fy  An  Adjective,  not  an  Adverb,  should  always  fol- 
low a  Neuter  Verb  when  it  qualifies  the  Noun  preceding 
it  and  not  the  Verb  itself;  as,  The  fields  look  green; 
Lizzie  appears  contented  and  happy :  The  wind  blows 
fresh  ;  Prince  Arthur  looked  splendid. 

C^  Two  NEGATIVES  contradicting  each  other  ought 
to  be  carefully  avoided ;  as,  Death  never  spared  no  one ; 
should  be,  Death  never  spared  any  one, 


PREPOSITIONS.  41 


PREPOSITIONS. 


PREPOSITIONS  imply  position;  or  a  Preposition 
is  a  word  that  shows  the  relative  position  of  two 
or  more  objects  to  one  another ;  as,  The  rose 
blooms  in  the  garden  ;  The  river  flows  between  the 
hills;  The  eagle  soars  above  the  mountain  sum- 
mits ;  My  sister  stands  behind  me. 


Take  any  two  articles,  such  as  a  tumbler  and  a 
goblet,  and  change  their  position  in  reference  to  each 
other ;  in  this  way  the  most  of  the  Prepositions  may  be 
manufactured  to  the  eye ;  as,  Above,  over,  on,  in,  within, 
without,  out  of,  before,  behind,  across,  around,  down, 
near,  up,  from,  toward,  to,  against,  under,  underneath, 
&c.  The  few  remaining  ones  have  reference  more  to 
words  or  ideas  than  to  objects. 

l^'  The  Preposition's  governing  power  is  limited  to 
the  SEVEX  WORDS  governed  by  the  Transitive  Verbs, 
namely :  Me,  thee,  him,  her,  its,  them,  and  whom. 

^p3  When  a  Preposition  stands  before  a  single  Pro- 
noun, there  is  seldom  an  error  made;  as,  Before  me  — 
no  one  would  say,  before  /;  but  when  the  Preposition  is 
followed  by  two  Pronouns,  nothing  but  the  grammatical 
knowledge  of  the  proper  word  to  be  used  will  save  the 
speaker  from  erring.  How  often  do  we  hear  from  pro- 
fessedly educated  persons,  Between  you  and  /;  between 


42  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

you  and  she  I  Now  these  phrases  are  as  grammatically 
wrong  as,  Over  /,  over  site;  but  the  ear  is  deceived  by 
the  close  association  of  you  with  these  words,  and  the 
error  is  in  a  measure  concealed  by  it.  The  Pronoun 
YOU  is  a  dangerous  companion  for  any  other  Pronoun  to 
be  connected  with,  and  will  assuredly  lead  to  error  if  not 
carefully  watched  and  guarded  against. 

$3T  Prepositions  have  a  beautiful  use  in  the  language 
not  recognized  by  grammarians.  To  understand  this,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  all  Transitive  Verbs  reach 
objects  ;  the  Passive  and  Neuter  of  themselves  never  do. 
These,  like  the  drooping  arrow  of  the  archer,  caught  in 
its  falling  by  a  friendly  hand  and  sped  on  to  its  mark, 
receive  an  impetus  from  the  Prepositions,  forming  a  com- 
bination equal  to  a  Transitive  Verb;  as,  Saturn's  ring 
was  seen  through  the  telescope ;  The  river  flows  into  the 
ocean. 

ACTOK.                Transitive  Verb,  or  action.  OBJECT. 

*...  ...* 

Passive. 

*...  * 

Neuter. 


ACTOK.  Transitive  Verb,  x>r  action.  OBJECT. 

*...  ...* 

Passive,  with  Preposition. 
*...  ...* 

Neuter,  with  Preposition. 


This  feature  in  the  use  of  the  Prepositions,  sug- 
gests an  interesting  thought,  either  morally  or  philosophi- 
cally considered,  that  ALL  VERBS  ARE  TRANSITIVE,  or 
may  be  so;  having  one  COMMON  DESTINY,  namely,  to 
reach  and  influence  objects  beyond. 


PREPOSITIONS .  43 

The  Preposition  should  be  placed  immediately 
before  the  Relative  it  governs;  as,  With  whom  do  you 
associate?  Not,  Who  do  you  associate  with? 

I3P3  SINCE  is  very  frequently  and  improperly  confused 
with  AGO  ;  as,  He  called  four  days  since.  It  ought  to  be 
remembered  that  since  should  be  only  used  in  measuring 
time  from  the  past  towards  the  present,  and  ar/o,  in  meas- 
uring from  the  present  towards  the  past;  as,  I  have  not 
seen  him  since  Christmas;  He  called  a  week  ago. 

%3T  IN  is  very  improperly  used  for  INTO  to  express 
entrance;  as,  Robert  went  in  the  Common;  should  be, 
went  into  the  Common.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
being  outside  the  enclosure  he  would  first  have  to  go  TO 
the  boundary  line,  and  then  IN,  before  an  entrance  could 
be  accomplished ;  hence  the  proper  use  of  the  beautiful 
compound  word  into. 

85P3  BETWEEN  is  frequently  and  improperly  used  for 
among;  as,  I  divided  the  money  between  the  four  boys; 
should  be,  among  the  four  boys.  Between  has  reference 
to  TWO  only,  and  among  has  reference  to  any  greater 
number  than  two;  as,  He  sat  between  his  two  sisters;  He 
spent  the  winter  among  his  country  relatives. 


44  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


CONJUNCTIONS  unite ;  or,  a  Conjunction  is  a 
word  that  connects  words  or  sentences  together ; 
as,  Milton  and  Shakspeare  were  poets  ;  Washing- 
ton was  a  true  patriot,  therefore  his  country 
reveres  his  memory.  The  words  generally  used 
as  Conjunctions  are:  Also,  and,  as  well  as,  but, 
yet,  nevertheless,  nor,  notwithstanding,  or,  neither, 
if,  though,  unless,  for,  since,  lest,  than,  because, 
inasmuch. 


CONJUNCTIONS  are  used  to  connect  together  the 
scattered  shreds  of  language  and  fit  them  to  convey  a 
connected  train  of  thought.  Were  there  no  Conjunctions 
the  act  of  speaking  or  writing  would  be  tedious  and 
laborious,  as  every  object  or  action  would  then  have  to  be 
spoken  of  separately.  Mott  says  : — 

The  current  is  often  evinced  by  the  straws, 
And  the  course  of  the  wind  by  the  flight  of  a  feather ; 

So  a  speaker  is  known  by  his  and-*  nnd  his  ors, 
Those  stitches  that  fasten  his  patchwork  together. 

The  following  sentence  will  illustrate  the  poet's  idea  of 
stitching: — Italy  teems  with  recollections  of  every  kind; 
for  courage,  and  wisdom,  and  power,  and  arts,  and 
science,  and  beauty,  and  music,  and  desolation,  have  all 
made  it  their  dwelling  place. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  45 

Conjunctions  couple  the  same  Cases  of  Nouns  or 
Pronouns,  for  a  similar  reason,  that  two  chained  balls 
must  fly  in  one  direction  from  the  mouth  of  the  cannon. 
Being  hinged  together  by  the  Conjunction,  the  Nouns  or 
Pronouns  must  represent  ACTION  in  concert;  POSSESSION 
in  concert,  or  SUFFERING  in  concert;  as,  James  and 
Edward  went  to  New  York  ;  Susan's,  as  well  as  Matil- 
da s,  boots,  were  purchased  on  Broadway;  George 
Peabody's  donations  benefited  England  and  America. 

J5P3  Conjunctions  couple  the  same  Moods  and  Tenses 
of  Verbs;  as,'  Napoleon  FOUND  Moscow  in  flames  and 
instantly  ORDERED  his  troops  to  extinguish  them. 

jQp3  Sometimes  Conjunctions  connect  different  Moods 
and  Tenses,  but  in  such  cases  euphony  and  perspicuity 
require  the  Nominative  to  be  repeated;  as,  He  came  and 
he  would  not  stay;  The  flowers  are  now  covered  beneath 
the  Winter's  snow,  but  when  Spring  shall  arrive,  they  will 
bud  forth  and  blossom,  delighting  the  senses  with  their 
beaut  and  frarance. 


CONJUNCTIONS  are  composed  of 
two  corresponding  words  ;  when  the  first  of  these  is  used, 
the  other  should  be  used  also.  Examples:  — 

NEITHER  -  NOR. 

The  Hectar,  wrapped  in  everlasting  sleep, 
Shall  neither  hear  thce  cry,  nor  see  thee  weep. 

EITHER  -  OR. 

I  will  either  mail  the  letter,  or  forward  it  by  Express. 

THOUGH  -  YET. 

Though  deep  yet  clear;  though  gentle  yet  not  dull. 

so  —  THAT. 
He  was  so  fatigued  that  he  could  hardly  move. 

OTHER,  and  the  Comparative  Degree,  THAN. 
No  other  than  she  ;  He  is  richer  than  his  brother. 


46  PROF.    HOWE'S    GRAMMAR. 

SAME AS. 

Your  hat  is  of  the  same  style  as  mine. 

NOT  ONLY BUT  ALSO. 

He  was  not  only  prudent  but  also  industrious. 
AS — so. 

As  down  in  the  sunless  retreats  of  the  ocean, 
Sweet  flowerets  are  springing,  no  mortal  can  see  ; 

So  deep  in  my  bosom,  the  prayer  of  devotion, 
Unheard  by  the  world,  rises  silent  to  thee. 


INTERJECTIONS. 


INTERJECTIONS  express  emotion  ;  or,  an  Inter- 
jection is  a  word  caused  by  some  sudden  and 
exciting  sensation  of  the  mind;  as,  Hark!  the 
bell  tolls.  Oh!  make  her  a  grave  where  the  sun- 
beams rest.  See  I  the  eclipse  is  now  complete. 


Interjections  are  those  words  which  escape  the 
lips  when  the  mind  becomes  full  to  overflowing  of  uncon- 
trollable emotion;  and  such  words,  although  having  no 
grammatical  connection,  are  particularly  expressive  and 


INTERJECTIONS.  47 

give  soul  to  language.  Besides  the  ordinary  Interjections, 
which  in  many  cases  are  mere  sounds,  any  other  part  of 
speech  may  become  an  Interjection  ;  as,  Nonsense  ! 
Shocking!  Wonderful!  Silence!  Welcome! 


O,  AXD'  OH. 

O,  is  used  in  direct  adlress;  as,  O  virtue!  O  sister! 
and  it  should  always  be  srggestive  of  something  pleasant, 
joyful  and  interesting;  as,  O,  the  sunny  days  of  child- 
hood !  Oh!  is  used  to  express  emotions  of  pain,  sorrow, 
trouble,  or  sufferiiig  of  some  kind,  requiring  the  exclama- 
tion point  ne::t  ir;  and  it  may  or  may  not,  as  the  writer 
wishes,  have  another  at  the  end  of  the  sentence;  as,  Oh! 
what  untold  sorrows  were  created  by  the  late  war! 

Oh  !  had  your  fate  been  joined  to  mine, 

As  once  this  pledge  appeared  the  token; 
These  follies  had  not  tl.en  been  mine, 

My  early  vows  had  not  been  broken.—  Byron. 


48  PROF.    HOWE'S   GRAMMAR. 


CAPITAL    LETTERS. 


The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  Simple  pleasures 
give  the  highest  enjoyment.  The  first  word  of 
every  line  in  Poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 

Of  heaven  if  tliou  would'st  reach  a  gleam, 
On  humblest  object  fix  thy  eyes ; 
So  travelers,  in  a  picturing  strea-n, 
Look  down,  indeed,  but  see  the  skies. 

£^  The  following  words  always  require  capital  letters: 
Proper  Nouns  and  titles  of  -honor;  as,  Ottawa;  Sir 
Walter  Scott;  Judge  Wilkinson.  Adjectives  derived 
from  names  of  places  ;  as,  American,  Spanish,  Prussian. 
The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation  when  it  forms  a 
complete  sentence ;  as,  Virgil  says,  "  Labor  conquers 
all."  The  Pronoun  I,  and  the  Interjection  O.  The 
names  of  the  days  of  the  week ;  as,  Sunday,  Monday. 
The  names  of  the  months  of  the  year ;  as,  January, 
February,  March.  Every  appellation  of  Deity ;  as,  God, 
Almighty,  Jehovah.  Every  Noun  and  principal  word  in 
the  title  of  books ;  as,  Giblon's  Eise  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Common  Nouns  when  personified ;  as, 

Oh !  sacred  Star  of  evening,  tell 

In  what  unseen  celestial  sphere, 
Those  spirits  of  the  perfect  dwell 

Too  pure  to  rest  in  sadness  here. 

13P"  Any  other  word  that  is  of  particular  importance 
to  the  writer  may  begin  with  a  capital;  but  the  fewer 
of  these  the  better. 


PUNCTUATION.  40 


PUNCTUATION. 


The  COMMA  ( , )  is  used  when  the  sense  requires  a 
slight  natural  pause ;  as,  To  do  good,  if  we  have  the  op- 
portunity, is  our  duty,  and  should  be  our  happiness. 

The  SEMICOLON  (  ;  )  marks  a  longer  pause  than  the 
Comma,  and  separates  clauses  less  closely  connected  ;  as, 
He  that  loveth  pleasure  shall  be  a  poor  man ;  he  that 
loveth  wine  and  oil  shall  not  be  rich. 

The  COLON  ( :  )  is  used  when  the  preceding  part 
of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  sense  and  construction,  and 
the  following  part  is  some  remark  naturally  arising  from 
it,  given  as  explanation ;  as,  Accuracy,  promptness  and 
integrity  are  necessary  in  all  business  transactions  :  there 
is  no  true  success  without  them.  The  colon  is  also  used 
before  examples  or  quotations ;  as,  There  are  four  sea- 
sons :  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  Winter.  The  last 
words  of  an  eminent  divine  were:  "The  best  of  all  is, 
God  is  with  us." 

The  PERIOD  (  .  )  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  sentence ; 
as,  The  fairest  flowers  are  the  first  to  fade.  The  Period 
is  also  used  after  abbreviations ;  as,  The  oration  was  de- 
livered by  Rev.  H.  W.  Beecher. 

The  POINT  of  INTERROGATION  (?)  is  placed  after 
every  direct  and  complete  question ;  as,  How  old  is  the 
President  ?  When  a  question  is  only  said  to  be  asked, 
the  note  of  Interrogation  is  not  used ;  as,  The  Governor 
General  of  Canada  asked  Prince  Arthur,  how  he  liked 
the  Americans. 

The  POINT  of  EXCLAMATION  (!)  is  used  after  ex- 
pressions of  sudden  emotion  of  any  kind;  as,  Eternity! 
thou  pleasing,  dreadful  thought. 


UCSB   LIBRARY 


A     000  607  516 


